Sejarah Matematika
Evolusi matematika dapat dipandang sebagai sederetan abstraksi yang selalu bertambah banyak, atau perkataan lainnya perluasan pokok masalah. Abstraksi mula-mula, yang juga berlaku pada banyak binatang, adalah tentang bilangan: pernyataan bahwa dua apel dan dua jeruk (sebagai contoh) memiliki jumlah yang sama.
Selain mengetahui cara mencacah objek-objek fisika, manusia prasejarah juga mengenali cara mencacah besaran abstrak, seperti waktu — hari, musim, tahun. Aritmetika dasar (penjumlahan, pengurangan, perkalian, dan pembagian) mengikuti secara alami.
Langkah selanjutnya memerlukan penulisan atau sistem lain untuk mencatatkan bilangan, semisal tali atau dawai bersimpul yang disebut quipu dipakai oleh bangsa Inca untuk menyimpan data numerik. Sistem bilangan ada banyak dan bermacam-macam, bilangan tertulis yang pertama diketahui ada di dalam naskah warisan Mesir Kuno di Kerajaan Tengah Mesir, Lembaran Matematika Rhind.
Penggunaan terkuno matematika adalah di dalam perdagangan, pengukuran tanah, pelukisan, dan pola-pola penenunan dan pencatatan waktu dan tidak pernah berkembang luas hingga tahun 3000 SM ke muka ketika orang Babilonia dan Mesir Kuno mulai menggunakan aritmetika, aljabar, dan geometri untuk penghitungan pajak dan urusan keuangan lainnya, bangunan dan konstruksi, dan astronomi. Pengkajian matematika yang sistematis di dalam kebenarannya sendiri dimulai pada zaman Yunani Kuno antara tahun 600 dan 300 SM.
Matematika sejak saat itu segera berkembang luas, dan terdapat interaksi bermanfaat antara matematika dan sains, menguntungkan kedua belah pihak. Penemuan-penemuan matematika dibuat sepanjang sejarah dan berlanjut hingga kini. Menurut Mikhail B. Sevryuk, pada Januari 2006 terbitan Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, “Banyaknya makalah dan buku yang dilibatkan di dalam basis data Mathematical Reviews sejak 1940 (tahun pertama beroperasinya MR) kini melebihi 1,9 juta, dan melebihi 75 ribu artikel ditambahkan ke dalam basis data itu tiap tahun. Sebagian besar karya di samudera ini berisi teorema matematika baru beserta bukti-buktinya.”
2012 Toyota Yaris Review
If you dig down through all the marketing bumph, past the sharper styling, beyond the claims that Toyota is getting back to its reliable small-car basics, the biggest shift happens on the dashboard. Rarely has a car been so underwhelming that its replacement can improve matters simply by moving the speedometer by 10-inches. But that’s the biggest news for potential Yaris buyers interested in the latest version.
FAST FACTS
1. The Yaris continues to use a 106 hp 1.5L 4-cylinder with a 30/38 mpg rating for the 5-speed manual or 30/35 mpg for the 4-speed automatic.
2. Yaris 3-door models start from $14,115 for the L and $15,480 for the LE. 5-door versions start at $15,140 for the L, $15,960 for the LE and $16,300 for the SE.
3. With a 5.7-inch longer and 2.1-inch wider cargo area, luggage space is up over 60 percent to 15.3 cu-ft on the 3-door and 15.6 cu-ft on the 5-door.
Previously, the Yaris was generally bought by people who had no love for driving and wanted to spend as little money doing it as possible. With an underpowered engine, cheap materials and admitted Toyota reliability, the sub-compact did have some of the lowest running costs around but delivered no thrills or joy in the process.
The latest one doesn’t improve matters much. It still uses the old 1.5-liter four-cylinder engine with 106 horsepower and 103 lb-ft of torque, and although it does have variable valve timing, it lacks the modern direct-injection systems of its competitors. The class-leading Hyundai Accent and Kia Rio put out another 30 horses and 20 lb-ft without any loss of fuel efficiency, and best the Toyota’s estimated 30 mpg in the city and 38. And that’s with the 5-speed manual. Opt for the 4-speed automatic and the numbers drop to 30/35 mpg. With either of the carry-over transmissions, the Yaris is just as outmatched in the acceleration department, being one of the slowest-accelerating vehicles around.
A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field
British physicist James Clerk Maxwell, considered one of the 19th century’s most important scientists, was the first to demonstrate that light consists of electromagnetic waves. Building upon the ideas of British scientist Michael Faraday, Maxwell developed his electromagnetic theory of light. This and other works by Maxwell helped pave the way for some of the major advances in physics in the 20th century. The following is Maxwell’s treatise “A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field” (1864), which contains the fundamental equations that describe the electromagnetic field.
The most obvious mechanical phenomenon in electrical and magnetical experiments is the mutual action by which bodies in certain states set each other in motion while still at a sensible distance from each other. The first step, therefore, in reducing these phenomena into scientific form, is to ascertain the magnitude and direction of the force acting between the bodies, and when it is found that this force depends in a certain way upon the relative position of the bodies and on their electric or magnetic condition, it seems at first sight natural to explain the facts by assuming the existence of something either at rest or in motion in each body, constituting its electric or magnetic state, and capable of acting at a distance according to mathematical laws.
In this way mathematical theories of statical electricity, of magnetism, of the mechanical action between conductors carrying currents, and of the induction of currents have been formed. In these theories the force acting between the two bodies is treated with reference only to the condition of the bodies and their relative position, and without any express consideration of the surrounding medium.
These theories assume, more or less explicitly, the existence of substances the particles of which have the property of acting on one another at a distance by attraction or repulsion. The most complete development of a theory of this kind is that of M. W. Weber, who has made the same theory include electrostatic and electromagnetic phenomena.
In doing so, however, he has found it necessary to assume that the force between two electric particles depends on their relative velocity, as well as on their distance.
This theory, as developed by MM. W. Weber and C. Neumann, is exceedingly ingenious, and wonderfully comprehensive in its application to the phenomena of statical electricity, electromagnetic attractions, induction of currents and diamagnetic phenomena; and it comes to us with the more authority, as it has served to guide the speculations of one who has made so great an advance in the practical part of electric science, both by introducing a consistent system of units in electrical measurement, and by actually determining electrical quantities with an accuracy hitherto unknown.
Blackberry 9790 Review
With the RIM BlackBerry Bold 9900, RIM tried to combine the best of both worlds: a top-notch keyboard and a touchscreen interface. With the Bold 9790 RIM has taken the same idea, but in a smaller, slimmer body that’s arguably easier to carry around with you.
In addition to the keyboard and touchscreen, there’s an optical trackpad button. It’s a little sensitive at first, but once you get used to it, it’s a great way to scroll through a large list of emails and select menu options.
One of the big changes from the Bold 9900 is that the 9790 has a slightly slower single-core processor: 1GHz versus 1.2GHz. It’s fine for most uses of the OS, but we found that pressing and holding the menu button to bring up BlackBerry 7′s task switching could bring the phone to halt. This was particularly true if a busy application is running in the background, such as the app update process, brings up the clock icon halting you from doing anything else.
Build quality is great, as we’d expect from a BlackBerry. The matt, rubberised back feels tough and secure, but it’s easy to slip off if you need to get to the battery compartment and SIM card slot. The rear also houses the lens for the 5-megapixel camera.
We have known for a couple of months now that the BlackBerry Bold 9790 would be available in white as well as the standard black color, but the details were few and far between. Some leaked slides back in January showed that we would see a Q2 of 2012 release for the white device, and lately we have seen some of them popping up around various places. Last month forums member bligui got their hands on one and showed it off, and now forums member radewa shows off some more pictures. We can only hope that this means that the beautiful white Bold 9790 release is coming soon, and that users will be able to claim one for themselves. Hop in the forums to check it all out, and let us know if the white Bold 9790 will be your next device!
Biography Super Junior
Super Junior is a South Korean boy band. Formed in 2005 by producer Lee Soo-man of SM Entertainment, the group comprised a total of thirteen members at its peak. Super Junior originally debuted with twelve members, consisting of leader Leeteuk, Heechul, Han Geng, Yesung, Kangin, Shindong, Sungmin, Eunhyuk, Donghae, Siwon, Ryeowook and Kibum. Kyuhyun was added to the group in 2006.
Super Junior launched into international recognition following the release of their best-selling single “Sorry, Sorry” in 2009, the title song of their most critically successful album Sorry, Sorry. The group has released and contributed to over 20 records with varying degrees of success, and was the best-selling K-pop artist for three years in a row. Super Junior proved that they are the #1 K-pop artist in the Philippines. They earned 3 Gold record awards for Sorry Sorry, Bonamana, and Mr. Simple.
Over the years, they have been divided into smaller subgroups, simultaneously targeting different music industries and audiences. Largely due to Super Junior’s success as entertainers, other Korean entertainment managements began to train their music groups in other areas of entertainment, such as acting and hosting. In addition to their commercial success, Super Junior has earned ten music awards from the Mnet Asian Music Awards, thirteen from the Golden Disk Awards, and is the second singing group to win Favorite Artist Korea at the 2008 MTV Asia Awards after JTL in 2003.
In December 2009, Han Geng departed from the group after filing a lawsuit against their agency SM Entertainment. Han Geng subsequently won the lawsuit in December 2010, though his departure from Super Junior was not made official until September 27, 2011, when S.M. Entertainment finally released a statement to that effect. Heechul enlisted for his mandatory military service on September 1, 2011, joining Kangin, who completed his service in April 2012. As well as this, Kibum remains absent from the group while pursuing an acting career, however the remaining members consider the absent four to be part of the group regardless. This has left Super Junior with ten currently active members: Leeteuk, Yesung, Shindong, Sungmin, Eunhyuk, Donghae, Siwon, Ryeowook, and Kyuhyun.
Cerpen
Cerita pendek cenderung kurang kompleks dibandingkan dengan novel. Cerita pendek biasanya memusatkan perhatian pada satu kejadian, mempunyai satu plot, setting yang tunggal, jumlah tokoh yang terbatas, mencakup jangka waktu yang singkat.
Dalam bentuk-bentuk fiksi yang lebih panjang, ceritanya cenderung memuat unsur-unsur inti tertentu dari struktur dramatis: eksposisi (pengantar setting, situasi dan tokoh utamanya); komplikasi (peristiwa di dalam cerita yang memperkenalkan konflik); aksi yang meningkat, krisis (saat yang menentukan bagi si tokoh utama dan komitmen mereka terhadap suatu langkah); klimaks (titik minat tertinggi dalam pengertian konflik dan titik cerita yang mengandung aksi terbanyak atau terpenting); penyelesaian (bagian cerita di mana konflik dipecahkan); dan moralnya.
Karena pendek, cerita-cerita pendek dapat memuat pola ini atau mungkin pula tidak. Sebagai contoh, cerita-cerita pendek modern hanya sesekali mengandung eksposisi. Yang lebih umum adalah awal yang mendadak, dengan cerita yang dimulai di tengah aksi. Seperti dalam cerita-cerita yang lebih panjang, plot dari cerita pendek juga mengandung klimaks, atau titik balik. Namun demikian, akhir dari banyak cerita pendek biasanya mendadak dan terbuka dan dapat mengandung (atau dapat pula tidak) pesan moral atau pelajaran praktis.
Menetapkan apa yang memisahkan cerita pendek dari format fiksi lainnya yang lebih panjang adalah sesuatu yang problematik. Sebuah definisi klasik dari cerita pendek ialah bahwa ia harus dapat dibaca dalam waktu sekali duduk (hal ini terutama sekali diajukan dalam esai Edgar Allan Poe “The Philosophy of Composition” pada 1846). Definisi-definisi lainnya menyebutkan batas panjang fiksi dari jumlah kata-katanya, yaitu 7.500 kata. Dalam penggunaan kontemporer, istilah cerita pendek umumnya merujuk kepada karya fiksi yang panjangnya tidak lebih dari 20.000 kata dan tidak kurang dari 1.000 kata.
Cerita yang pendeknya kurang dari 1.000 kata tergolong pada genre fiksi kilat (flash fiction). Fiksi yang melampuai batas maksimum parameter cerita pendek digolongkan ke dalam novelette, novella, atau novel.
Cerpen Cinta Pertama
Cerpen Persahabatan Sejati
Cerpen Cinta Sedih Banget
Biologi
Biologi atau ilmu hayat adalah ilmu yang mempelajari aspek fisik kehidupan. Istilah “biologi” dipinjam dari bahasa Belanda, biologie, yang juga diturunkan dari gabungan kata bahasa Yunani, βίος, bios (“hidup”) dan λόγος,logos (“lambang”, “ilmu”). Istilah “ilmu hayat” dipinjam dari bahasa Arab, juga berarti “ilmu kehidupan”. Obyek kajian biologi pada masa kini sangat luas dan mencakup semua makhluk hidup dalam berbagai aspek kehidupannya.
Berbagai cabang biologi mengkhususkan diri pada setiap kelompok organisme, seperti botani (ilmu tentang tumbuhan), zoologi (ilmu tentang hewan), dan mikrobiologi (ilmu tentang jasad renik). Perbedaan-perbedaan dan pengelompokan berdasarkan ciri-ciri fisik kelompok organisme dipelajari dalam sistematika, yang di dalamnya mencakup pula taksonomi dan paleobiologi.
Berbagai aspek kehidupan dikaji pula dalam biologi. Ciri-ciri fisik bagian tubuh dipelajari dalam anatomi dan morfologi, sementara fungsinya dipelajari dalam fisiologi. Perilaku hewan dipelajari dalam etologi. Perkembangan ciri fisik makhluk hidup dalam kurun waktu panjang dipelajari dalam evolusi, sedangkan pertumbuhan dan perkembangan dalam siklus kehidupan dipelajari dalam biologi perkembangan. Interaksi antar sesama makhluk dan dengan alam sekitar mereka dipelajari dalam ekologi; Mekanisme pewarisan sifat—yang berguna dalam upaya menjaga kelangsungan hidup suatu jenis makhluk hidup—dipelajari dalam genetika.
Saat ini bahkan berkembang aspek biologi yang mengkaji kemungkinan berevolusinya makhluk hidup pada masa yang akan datang, juga kemungkinan adanya makhluk hidup di planet-planet selain bumi, yaitu astrobiologi. Sementara itu, perkembangan teknologi memungkinkan pengkajian pada tingkat molekul penyusun organisme melalui biologi molekular serta biokimia, yang banyak didukung oleh perkembangan teknik komputasi melalui bidang bioinformatika.
Ilmu biologi banyak berkembang pada abad ke-19, dengan ilmuwan menemukan bahwa organisme memiliki karakteristik pokok. Biologi kini merupakan subyek pelajaran sekolah dan universitas di seluruh dunia, dengan lebih dari jutaan makalah dibuat setiap tahun dalam susunan luas jurnal biologi dan kedokteran
Sistem, Jenis dan Fungsi Otot
Sistem Pencernaan Makanan Pada Manusia
Fungsi Darah Bagi Manusia
Fungsi Hati Manusia
